冷战时期印美关系研究 在线阅读 整本下载 分章下载 分页下载 【英文题名】A Study on the India-US Relations in the Cold War【作者】陶莹;【导师】刘德斌;【学位授予单位】吉林大学;【学科专业名称】世界史【学位年度】2008【论文级别】博士【网络出版投稿人】吉林大学；陶莹【网络出版投稿时间】2008-10-20【关键词】印度; 美国; 冷战;【中文摘要】印度和美国的关系与我国的外交及安全息息相关。二战后的半个世纪，美苏两个超级大国一直在包括南亚地区在内的第三世界地区进行对抗和争夺。由于地缘关系，美苏特别是美国与印巴的关系对中国和印度、巴基斯坦、美国、苏联的关系影响很大。随着冷战的结束和南亚各国，尤其是印度政治经济的发展，世界各国更加重视印美之间的关系。本文从印度独立后外交政策的形成与发展变化入手，在马克思主义理论的指导下，综合运用各种已有材料，对冷战时期印度与美国的关系进行考察和研究。 冷战时期的印美关系一直在友好与淡漠之间徘徊，在冷战的大背景下呈现出一种非结盟却并不完全交恶的状态。印美关系是冷战“中心一外围”关系的典型案例，正是印美两国基于各自国家利益所采取的外交政策导致双方在四十多年时间里的微妙关系。对于印度而言，冷战时期的对美关系一直是其外交政策中的重点之一。在印美关系中，印度追求与美国的对等状态，并力图排除大国在南亚的介入。对于美国而言，印度在美国全球战略中的地位和作用具有明显的间歇性，因此，美国对印政策的典型模式是“干预—退出”，缺乏连贯性和长远性。总之，冷战时期，影响印美关系疏远或改善的因素是多方面的，正是这些因素的相互作用导致【英文摘要】The relationship between India and America is closely associated with the diplomacy of our During the half-century after the World War II， the two superpowers， USA and USSR， had been confronting and contesting with each other in the "Third World Region" which included South Asian R Considering the regional matter， the relations between USA and USSR， especially the relations between USA and India & Pakistan， can be a great influence on the relations between China and India， Pakistan， USA【DOI】CNKI:CDMD:128942【更新日期】2008-11-11
Traditional Chinese medicineFrom Wikipedia， the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation， search This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality Please improve this article if you (November 2008) This article or section needs copy editing for grammar， style， cohesion， tone or You can assist by editing it A how-to guide is (November 2008) This article contains Chinese Without proper rendering support， you may see question marks， boxes， or other symbols instead of Chinese Alternative medical systems Acupuncture • Anthroposophic medicine • Ayurveda • Chiropractic • Herbalism • Homeopathy • Naturopathy • Neural therapy • Osteopathy • Traditional medicine (Chinese • Tibetan) NCCAM classifications Whole medical systems • Mind-body interventions • Biologically based therapies • Manipulative therapy • Energy therapies See also Alternative medicine • Glossary of alternative medicine • List of people in alternative medicine This box: view • talk • edit Traditional Chinese medicine/dried goods shop in Tsim Sha Tsui， Hong KongTraditional Chinese medicine (also known as TCM， simplified Chinese: 中医; traditional Chinese: 中医; pinyin: zhōngyī) includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in C It is considered a Complementary or Alternative Medical system in much of the western world while remaining as a form of primary care throughout most of ATCM practices include treatments such as herbal medicine， acupuncture， dietary therapy， Tui na and Shiatsu massage; often Qigong and Taiji are also strongly affiliated with TCMTCM theory is extremely complex and originated thousands of years ago through meticulous observation of nature， the cosmos， and the human Major theories include those of Yin-yang， the Five Phases， the human body Channel system， Zang Fu organ theory， six confirmations， four layers， Contents [hide]1 History 1 Ancient (classical) TCM history 2 Timeline 2 Theory 1 Basic theory and model of the body 2 Modern TCM theory 3 Diagnostics 1 Techniques 4 Methods of treatment 5 Branches 6 Scientific view 1 Efficacy 2 Safety 1 In Practice 2 Allergy 3 Toxins and contaminants 4 Lack of standardization 5 Vague naming 7 Relationship with Western medicine 8 Animal products 9 Opposition 10 Modernization 11 See also 12 Footnotes 13 References 14 Further reading 15 External links 1 Online databases [edit] History[edit] Ancient (classical) TCM history Yin-yang symbolMuch of the philosophy of traditional Chinese medicine derived from the same philosophical bases that Taoist and Buddhist philosophies are based on， and reflects the classical Chinese belief that the life and activity of individual human beings have an intimate relationship with the environment at all [1] It has also been noted that early traditional Chinese medicine stemmed from Taoist masters who had an extraordinary sense of the body and its workings through their many hours of This may be why TCM also inherited many of the principles inherent to Daoism (Taoism)During the golden age of his reign from 2698 to 2596 BC， as a result of a dialogue with his minister Qibo (岐伯)， the Yellow Emperor is supposed by Chinese tradition to have composed his Neijing Suwen (《内经·素问》) or Inner Canon: Basic Questions， also known as the Huangdi Neijing (Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon) The book's title is often mistranslated as Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal M Modern scholarly opinion holds that the extant text of this title was compiled by an anonymous scholar no earlier than the Han dynasty just over two-thousand years During the Han Dynasty (202 BC –220 AD)， Zhang Zhongjing (张仲景/张仲景)， the Hippocrates of China， who was mayor of Chang-sha toward the end of the 2nd century AD， wrote a Treatise on Cold Damage， which contains the earliest known reference to Neijing S Another prominent Eastern Han physician was Hua Tuo ( 140 – 208 AD)， who anesthetized patients during surgery with a formula of wine and powdered Hua's physical， surgical， and herbal treatments were also used to cure headaches， dizziness， internal worms， fevers， coughing， blocked throat， and even a diagnosis for one lady that she had a dead fetus within her that needed to be taken The Jin dynasty practitioner and advocate of acupuncture and moxibustion， Huang-fu Mi (215 - 282 AD)， also quoted the Yellow Emperor in his Jia Yi Jing (甲乙经/甲乙经)， 265 AD During the Tang dynasty， Wang Bing claimed to have located a copy of the originals of the Neijing Suwen， which he expanded and edited This work was revisited by an imperial commission during the 11th century ADThere were noted advances in Chinese medicine during the Middle A Emperor Gaozong ( 649–683) of the Tang Dynasty (618–907) commissioned the scholarly compilation of a materia medica in 657 that documented 833 medicinal substances taken from stones， minerals， metals， plants， herbs， animals， vegetables， fruits， and cereal [2] In his Bencao Tujing ('Illustrated Pharmacopoeia')， the scholar-official Su Song (1020–1101) not only systematically categorized herbs and minerals according to their pharmaceutical uses， but he also took an interest in [3][4][5][6] For example， Su made systematic descriptions of animal species and the environmental regions they could be found， such as the freshwater crab Eriocher sinensis found in the Huai River running through Anhui， in waterways near the capital city， as well as reservoirs and marshes of H[7]Contact with Western culture and medicine has not displaced TCM While there may be traditional factors involved in the persistent practice， two reasons are most obvious in the westward spread of TCM in recent Firstly， TCM practices are believed by many to be very effective， sometimes offering palliative efficacy where the practices of Western medicine fail or unable to provide treatment， especially for routine ailments such as flu and allergies， or when Western medicine fails to relieve patients suffering from chronic TCM has been shown to be effective in the treatment of chronic， functional disorders， such as migraines and osteoarthritis， and is traditionally used for a wide range of functional Secondly， TCM provides an alternative to otherwise costly procedures whom many can not afford， or which is not covered by There are also many who turn to TCM to avoid the toxic side effects of TCM of the last few centuries is seen by at least some sinologists as part of the evolution of a culture， from shamans blaming illnesses on evil spirits to "proto-scientific" systems of correspondence;[8] any reference to supernatural forces is usually the result of romantic translations or poor understanding and will not be found in the Taoist-inspired classics of acupuncture such as the Huang Di Nei J The system's development has， over its history， been analysed both skeptically and extensively， and the practice and development of it has waxed and waned over the centuries and cultures through which it has travelled[9] - yet the system has still survived thus It is true that the focus from the beginning has been on pragmatism， not necessarily understanding of the mechanisms of the actions - and that this has hindered its modern acceptance in the W This， despite that there were times such as the early 18th century when "acupuncture and moxa were a matter of course in polite European society"[10]The term "TCM" describes the modern practice of Chinese medicine as a result of sweeping reforms that took place after 1950 in the People's Republic of C The term "Classical Chinese medicine" (CCM) often refers to medical practices that rely on theories and methods dating from before the fall of the Qing Dynasty (1911) Advocates of CCM portray it as less influenced by Western and political agendas than TCM[edit] Timeline Macerated medicinal liquor with wolfberry， iguana， and ginseng， for sale at a traditional medicine market in Xi'The history of TCM can be summarized by a list of important doctors and Unknown， Huángdì nèijīng (黄帝内经/黄帝内经) (Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon) - Sùwèn (素问/素问) and Língshū (灵枢/灵枢) The earliest classic of TCM passed on to the Warring States Period (5th century BC to 221 BC): Silk manuscripts recording channels and collaterals， Zubi shiyi mai jiu jing (足臂十一脉灸经/足臂十一脉灸经) (Moxibustion Classic of the Eleven Channels of Legs and Arms)， and Yinyang shiyi mai jiu jing (阴阳十一脉灸经/阴阳十一脉灸经) (Moxibustion Classic on the Eleven Yin and Yang Channels) The latter was part of a cache of texts found in Mawangdui in the Han Dynasty (206 BC–AD 220) to Three Kingdoms Period (220 - 280 AD): Zhenjiu zhenzhong jing (针灸枕中经/针灸枕中经) (Classic of Moxibustion and Acupuncture Preserved in a Pillow) by Huà Tuó (华佗/华佗) Shanghan zabing lun (伤寒杂病论/伤寒杂病论)， which has since been split into two texts: the Shānghán lùn (伤寒论/伤寒论) ("Treatise on Cold Damage [Disorders]" - focusing on febrile conditions attributed to "Cold") and the Jingui yaolue (金匮要略) ("Essentials of the Golden Cabinet" - focusing on "miscellaneous illnesses") by Zhāng Zhòngjǐng (张仲景/张仲景) Jìn Dynasty (265-420): Zhēnjiǔ jiǎyǐ jīng (针灸甲乙经/针灸甲乙经) (Systematic Classic of Acupuncture and Moxibustion) by Huángfǔ Mì (皇甫谧/皇甫谧) Tang Dynasty (618–907) Beiji qianjin yaofang (备急千金要方/备急千金要方) (Emergency Formulas Worth a Thousand in Gold) and Qianjin yifang (千金翼方) (Supplement to the Formulas Worth a Thousand in Gold) by Sūn Sīmiǎo (孙思邈/孙思邈) Waitai miyao (外台秘要/外台秘要) (Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library) by Wang Tao (王焘/王焘) Song Dynasty (960 – 1279): Tóngrén shūxué zhēnjiǔ tújīng (铜人腧穴针灸图经/铜人腧穴针灸图经) (Illustrated Manual of the Practice of Acupuncture and Moxibustion at (the Transmission) (and other) Acu-points， for use with the Bronze Figure) by Wáng Wéiyī (王惟一) Yuan Dynasty (1271 to 1368): Shísì jīng fāhuī (十四经发挥/十四经发挥) (Exposition of the Fourteen Channels) by Huá Shòu (滑寿/滑寿) Ming Dynasty (1368 to 1644): golden age of acupuncture and Many famous doctors and To name only a few: Zhēnjiǔ dàquan (针灸大全/针灸大全) (A Complete Collection of Acupuncture and Moxibustion) by Xu Feng (徐凤/徐凤) Zhēnjiǔ jùyīng fāhuī (针灸聚英发挥/针灸聚英发挥) (An Exemplary Collection of Acupuncture and Moxibustion and their Essentials) by Gāo Wǔ (高武) Zhēnjiǔ dàchéng (针灸大成/针灸大成) (Compendium of Acupuncture and Moxibustion) by Yáng Jìzhōu (杨继洲/杨继洲)， completed in Běncǎo gāngmù (本草冈目/本草纲目) (Compendium of Materia Medica) by Lǐ Shízhēn (李时珍/李时珍)， the most complete and comprehensive pre-modern herbal book (completed in 1578) Wenyi lun (温疫论/温疫论)， by Wu Youxing 吴有性 (1642) Qing Dynasty (1644-1912): Yizong jinjian (医宗金鉴/医宗金鉴) (Golden Mirror of the Medical Tradition) compiled by Wu Quan (吴谦/吴谦) under imperial Zhenjiu fengyuan (针灸逢源/针灸逢源) (The Source of Acupuncture and Moxibustion) by Li Xuechuan (李学川/李学川) Wenre lun (温热论/温热论)， by Ye Tianshi (叶天士/业天士) Wenbing tiaobian (温病条辨/温病条辨) (Systematized Identification of Warm-factor disorders) compiled by Wu Jutong (吴鞠通) in [11] [edit] Theory This article or section cites its sources but does not provide page You can improve this article or section by introducing citations that are more Dried plants and animals parts are used in traditional Chinese In the image are dried lingzhi， snake， turtle plastron， Lou han fruit， and species of The foundation principles of Chinese medicine are not necessarily uniform， and are based on several schools of Received TCM can be shown to be influenced by Taoism， Buddhism， and Neo-C[12]Since 1200 BC， Chinese academics of various schools have focused on the observable natural laws of the universe and their implications for the practical characterisation of humanity's place in the In the I Ching and other Chinese literary and philosophical classics， Chinese writers described general principles and their applications to health and Porkert， a Western medical doctor， placed Chinese medical theory in context as:Chinese medicine， like many other Chinese sciences， defines data on the basis of the inductive and synthetic mode of Inductivity corresponds to a logical link between two effective positions existing at the same time in different places in (Conversely， causality is the logical link between two effective positions given at different times at the same place in ) In other words， effects based on positions that are separate in space yet simultaneous in time are mutually inductive and thus are called inductive In Western science prior to the development of electrodynamics and nuclear physics (which are founded essentially on inductivity)， the inductive nexus was limited to subordinate uses in protosciences such as Now Western man， as a consequence of two thousand years of intellectual tradition， persists in the habit of making causal connections first and inductive links， if at all， only as an This habit must still be considered the biggest obstacle to an adequate appreciation of Chinese science in general and Chinese medicine in Given such different cognitive bases， many of the apparent similarities between traditional Chinese and European science which attract the attention of positivists turn out to be [13][edit] Basic theory and model of the body An old Chinese medical chart on acupuncture meridians Interactions of Five Chinese Elements - Cycles of Balance and Cycles of ImbalanceMain article: TCM model of the body The following text needs to be harmonized with text in TCM model of the Traditional Chinese medicine is largely based on the philosophical concept that the human body is a small universe with a set of complete and sophisticated interconnected systems， and that those systems usually work in balance to maintain the healthy function of the human The balance of yin and yang is considered with respect to qi ("breath"， "life force"， or "spiritual energy")， blood， jing ("kidney essence"， including "semen")， other bodily fluids， the five elements， emotions， and the soul or spirit (shen) TCM has a unique model of the body， notably concerned with the meridian Unlike the Western anatomical model which divides the physical body into parts， the Chinese model is more concerned with Thus， the TCM spleen is not a specific piece of flesh， but an aspect of function related to transformation and transportation within the body， and of the mental functions of thinking and There are significant regional and philosophical differences between practitioners and schools which in turn can lead to differences in practice and Theories invoked to describe the human body in TCM include:Channels， also known as "meridians" Five elements Qi Three jiaos also known as the Triple Burner， the Triple Warmer or the Triple Energiser Yin and Yang Zang Fu theory The Yin/Yang and five element theories may be applied to a variety of systems other than the human body， whereas Zang Fu theory， meridian theory and three-jiao (Triple warmer) theories are more There are also separate models that apply to specific pathological influences， such as the Four stages theory of the progression of warm diseases， the Six levels theory of the penetration of cold diseases， and the Eight principles system of disease [edit] Modern TCM theoryThis section needs more detail， citations， better links， or all Also : How widespread is the belief that TCM and fractals are somehow interconnected? Someone must have come up with the idea， who was it?Third philosophy: Fractal (similar) view[14] Qi is the `information - energy - material' mix unity flow [15]， Qi sets， qi element， sub-Qi Mathematics physics Yin or Yang TCM fractal sets[16] Fractal Yin Yang sets: Df= Fractal Five elements sets: Df=4650， Yin Yang Five elements sets Df=[17] Fractal Zang Xiang theory:[18] the heart series， the liver series， the spleen series， the lung series， the kidney Fractal Channel ( Meridian (Chinese medicine) Jingluo)，CHANNELS AND MESH-NETWORK，NO VESSEL TCM channel is fractal， complex， pluralistic， rough， not smooth， non-tube dissection [19] [edit] Diagnostics
The Republic of IndiaThe Republic of India is a large South Asian country rich in ethnic diversity，with over one billion people speaking hundreds of Politically it is the world's largest liberal The Indian economy is the fourth largest in the world， in terms of purchasing power parity， and is the world's second-fastest growing India is also the second most populated country in the India has grown significantly， in terms of both population and strategic importance， in the last twenty years attributed to economic Strategically located in Asia，constituting most of the Indian subcontinent，India straddles many busy trade It shares its borders with Pakistan，the People's Republic of China，Myanmar，Bangladesh，Nepal，Bhutan and ASri Lanka，the Maldives and Indonesia are the nearby island nations in the Indian O Home to some of the most ancient civilisations in the world， India was formally ruled by the British for almost ninety years before gaining independence in Origin of India's name: The official name India is derived from Sindhu， the historic local appellation for the river Indus and is the most internationally recognisable of the The Constitution of India and general usage also recognises Bharat as the other official name of equal Bharat comes from the name of an ancient Hindu king and means seeker of The third name is Hindustan， meaning land of the Hindus (where Hindu refers to those who dwell to the right of the Indus/Sindhu river) used from the Mughal times India，a sub-continent with 5000 year old H A civilization united by its diversity，richness of culture，the glory of past，the turbulences and The landmarks of each era，the achievements of a change，the legacy of a As we walk through the history，India is an amazing discovery and its history is a unique tale of the With the arrival of the Portuguese， French and English traders， advantage was taken of the fractured， debilitate kingdoms to colonise I In 1857， an insurrection amongst the army sepoys ensued in the popular Revolt of 1857 against the powerful British East India Company; this mobilised resistance， though short-lasting， was caused by the widespread resentment against discriminatory policies of the B After the revolt， the Indian independence movements started demanding complete On August 15th， 1947， India was finally granted independence from British rule and became a secular January 26 (Republic Day of India): Republic Day is one of the greatest national celebrations observed throughout the country on January 26 every India became Republic on the 26th Jan， The country became a sovereign democratic republic with a written constitution and an elected At the time of independence， although India was under British rule， there were 565 Princely States， big and small， ruled by powerful sovereigns who were protected by treaties of alliance with the British C Without bringing them together， the fundamental unity of the country was not This unification was accomplished by Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel， whose statesmanship helped to integrate the country into one In a little less than 2 years， all the princely States became a part of the Republic of I It was on this date in 1927 that the Indian National Congress， then fighting its non-violent war for freedom， voted for complete independence as against 'dominion status' When members of the INC took the pledge to work towards a 'sovereign democratic republic' of I Indian Constitution: When India gained freedom from the British on August 15， 1947 there was the need to regulate the meaning of Therefore， to have a set of rules and regulations that would guide the nation， the Constituent Assembly met on December 9，The Constituent Assembly was convened and appointed a committee with D BRAmbedkar as Chairman to draft the C Borrowing from the Constitutions of other countries， for example， the parliamentary form of government from Britain， supremacy of judiciary from the United States， federal system with a strong centre from Canada， directive principles of state policy from Ireland， the idea of concurrent powers and co-operative federalism from Australia， the system of procedure established by law from Japan， the Indian Constitution is an amalgam of all The Indian Constitution， the longest in the world， consist 397 articles and 12 schedules which provides for a single citizenship for the whole of IThe constitution of India was originally written in English It gives the right to vote to all citizens of 18 years and above， unless they are Fundamental rights are guaranteed to the citizens， equality of religion and so National motto: Satyameva Jayate (In sanskrit it means Always Truth Alone Triumphs) The Great Indian Flag: This is an ancient Indian symbol associated with the powers and changes of Officially， the Orange color stands for Courage and The White color signifies Peace and While Green symbolises Faith and C It is the duty of every Citizen to realise the significance of our flag and pay the honour and respect its Official language: Hindi，EnglishHaving being declared a Democratic Republic， the people starting governing themselves according to the Constitution written by the Constituent A With this， Republic Day became the most important day in the history of I It is therefore natural that the festivities for the day are a lot more elaborate than that for Independence D The Republic Day Parade The parade showcasing India's military might and cultural diversity covers an eight-km route， starting from the Rashtrapathi Bhavan through the picturesque Rajpath down to India Gate before winding up at the historic Red Fort in Old D The events of the day begin with the Prime Minister laying a wreath at the Amar Jawan Jyoti (at India Gate)He meets the dignitaries present and unfurls the National FFollowing the unfurling the National Anthem is played to a 21-gun After this a brief investiture ceremony takes place during which the President awards India's top gallantry awards - Param Veer Chakra， Veer Chakra and Maha Veer C In army these are known as the most prestigious awards for bravery for saving their motherland from the enemy of our Indian struggle continues till After independence，India has fought four wars with its From 1975 to 1977， Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared a "State of Emergency in India"， thereby freezing civil rights and detaining civilians without Sikh riots in 1984 resulted in religious strife in much of I Also the destruction of the Babri Masjid in 1992 resulted in religious strife in much of I In the desert town of Pokhran， in 1998， the Indian government exploded five nuclear warheads， confirming India's nuclear In 1999， India mobilised its military in Kargil， Kashmir to repel Islamist terrorists who， under the auspices of the Pakistani government， were encroaching upon Indian
