文化，作为一个专门术语，富有弹性。有人把文化说成是一种复杂的社会现 象，19世纪英国人类学家泰勒 （Edward Tylor）在《原始文化》一书中，给文 化下了一个比较经典的定义："文化是一个复合体，其中包括 知识、信仰、艺 术、法律、道德、风俗以及人作为社会成员而获得的任何其他能力和习惯。"交 际的过程是人 们运用语言知识和社会文化知识传递信息的过程，所以学习语言 与了解语言所反映的文化背景知识是分不开的 。了解英语文化知识，有助于交 际畅通并有效地进行。相反，缺乏了解英语文化背景知识必然导致交际障碍， 冲 突和误解，也就是我们所说的"语用失误（Pragmatic Failure）。 "本文所谈 的不是因为语法结构出错而 导致的词不达意，而且指说话方式的不妥，或不符 合表达的习惯，或说得不合时宜。说话人未能按照英美人的 社会风俗习惯来交 谈所造成的失误，本文试图谈谈日常交际中出现的误区。一、打招呼中国人之间彼此较为熟悉的人见面问候时，一般采用下列用语："上哪 去？"、 "吃过了吗？ "如果把 这些问候的话直译成英语（即：Where are you going? Have you eaten yet?"）。 英美人可能会茫然，困惑 ，有时也可能引起 误解。不了解汉文化习俗的外国人并不会认为这是一种起交际作用的问候语， 比 如：问对方 ："Have you eatenyet?"对方可能认为这不是单纯的见面问候的 话，而会误认为你可能发出对他／（她） 的邀请。又如"Where are you going?" 很可能引起对方的不快， 所以他／（她）对这一问话的反应极有 可能是： "It'snone of your （你管得着吗？"）。英美人的问候一般用"Good morning／aftern oon／evening（早上好、下午好、晚上好）""How do you do? （您好！）""Nice to meet （见到你 很高兴）""How are you doing? （你最近好吗？ ）。 在关系亲密者之间可用"Hello"或"Hi"二、称呼在英美国家，人们相互间称呼与我国的习惯相差极大。有些称呼在中国人看 来有悖情理，不礼貌，没教养 。比如：小孩子不把爷爷奶奶称作grandpa和 grandma，而是直呼其名，却是得体，亲切的，年轻人称老年人， 可在其姓氏前 加Mr、Mrs或Miss。比如：Mr Smith、Mrs Smith、Miss Alice等。在汉语里， 我们可以用"老师 、书记、经理、工程师、厂长"等词与姓氏连用作称呼语， 而 在英语中却不能， 我们不能说"teacher Zhan g（张老师），"engineer Wu（吴 工程师）等。正确的说法是应按照英美人的习惯把Mr、Mrs、Miss 与姓（名 ） 连用表示尊敬或礼貌。 中国人称呼家庭成员、亲戚或邻居时，往往用"大哥"、"二姐"、"大嫂"、 "李大伯"之类，这些称 呼不可用于英语。用英语称呼时不论男人还是女人， 一般直呼其名就行了。三、寒暄中国人见面寒暄通常是："你多大年纪？""你能挣多少钱？""结婚了 吗？"。在英语文化中，年龄、 地址、工作单位、收入、婚姻、家庭情况、信 仰等话题属个人隐私范畴，忌讳别人问及。英美人寒暄最频繁的 话题是天气的 状况或预测。如"It's fine isn't it? "或"It's raining hard， isn't it?""Your d ress is so nice!"等等。汉语里的寒暄有时还表示对对方的关 心。如："你今天气色不好，生病了？”“好 久不见，你又长胖了。""你又瘦 了，要注意身体啊。"人们不会为此生气。 英美人如果听到你说："You are fat "或"You are so "即使彼此间较熟悉，也会感到尴尬，难以回答， 因为这是不礼貌的。另外，在思维方式上，中国学生习惯用汉语的语义结构来套用英语。如：打 电话时，中国学生习惯说：" Hello who are you please? "而英美人的习惯 是接到电话先报自己的号码或单位、公司的名称。如：A:Hello 8403229B:Hello， thisis T Could I speak to Jim，please? 打电话的套话，必 须这样用。
having more than one spouse at a time The term polygamy (a Greek word meaning "the practice of multiple marriage") is used in related ways in social anthropology， sociobiology， and Polygamy can be defined as any "form of marriage in which a person [has] more than one " In social anthropology， polygamy is the practice of marriage to more than one spouse Historically， polygamy has been practiced as polygyny (one man having more than one wife)， or as polyandry (one woman having more than one husband)， or， less commonly as group marriage (husbands having many wives and those wives having many husbands) (See "Forms of Polygamy" ) In contrast， monogamy is the practice of each person having only one Like monogamy， the term is often used in a de facto sense， applying regardless of whether the relationships are recognized by the state (see marriage for a discussion on the extent to which states can and do recognize potentially and actually polygamous forms as valid) In sociobiology， polygamy is used in a broad sense to mean any form of multiple In a narrower sense， used by zoologists， polygamy includes a pair bond， perhaps Forms of polygamyPolygamy exists in three specific forms， including polygyny (one man having multiple wives)， polyandry (one woman having multiple husbands)， or group marriage (some combination of polygyny and polyandry) Historically， all three practices have been found， but polygyny is by far the most [2] Confusion arises when the broad term "polygamy" is used when a narrower definition is PolygynyPolygyny is the situation in which one man is either married to or involved in sexual relationships with a number of different women at one This is the most common form of PolyandryPolyandry is a practice where a woman is married to more than one man at the same Fraternal polyandry was traditionally practiced among nomadic Tibetans in Nepal parts of China and part of northern India， in which two or more brothers share the same wife， with her having equal sexual access to Polyandry is believed to be more likely in societies with scarce environmental resources， as it is believed to limit human population growth and enhance child A woman can only have so many children in her lifetime， no matter how many husbands she On the other hand， a child with many "fathers"， all of whom provide resources， is more likely to (In contrast， the number of children would be increased if polygyny were practiced， and a man had more than one These wives could be simultaneously pregnant)[3] It is a rare form of marriage that exists not only among poor families， but also within the [4]Group marriageGroup marriage， or circle marriage， may exist in a number of forms[citation needed]， such as where more than one man and more than one woman form a single family unit， and all members of the marriage share parental responsibility for any children arising from the Another possibility， which occurs in fiction (notably in Robert Heinlein's The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress) but isn't an actual human practice， is a long-lived line In a line marriage， deceased or departing spouses in the group are continually replaced by others so that family property never becomes dispersed through BigamyMain article: BigamyBigamy is the act or condition of a person marrying another person while still being lawfully married to a second Bigamy is listed (and sometimes prosecuted) as a crime in most western For example， in the United Kingdom， by law， a married person is not allowed to marry again as long as their first marriage Serial monogamyMain article: Serial monogamyThe phrase serial monogamy has been used to describe the lifestyle of persons who have repeatedly married and divorced multiple Other forms of nonmonogamyMain article: Forms of nonmonogamyOther forms of nonmonogamous relationships are discussed at Forms of One modern variant is Patterns of occurrence worldwideAccording to the Ethnographic Atlas Codebook， of the 1231 societies noted， 186 were 453 had occasional polygyny， 588 had more frequent polygyny， and 4 had [2] At the same time， even within societies which allow polygyny， the actual practice of polygyny occurs relatively There are exceptions: in Senegal， for example， nearly 47 percent of marriages are [5] To take on more than one wife often requires considerable resources: this may put polygamy beyond the means of the vast majority of people within those Such appears the case in many traditional Islamic societies， and in Imperial C Within polygynous societies， multiple wives often become a status symbol denoting wealth and Similarly， within societies that formally prohibit polygamy， social opinion may look favorably on persons maintaining mistresses or engaging in serial monogamy[citation needed]Some observers[who?] detect a social preference for polygyny in disease-prone (especially tropical) climates， and speculate that (from a potential mother's viewpoint) perceived quality of paternal genes may favour the practice there[citation needed] The countervailing situation allegedly prevails in harsher climates， where (once again from a potential mother's viewpoint) reliable paternal care as exhibited in monogamous pair-bonding outweighs the importance of paternal genes[citation needed]Patterns of occurrence across religions BuddhismMarriage is considered an issue in B According to Theravada Buddhism， polygamy is discouraged and extramatrial affairs are considered It is said in the Parabhava Sutta that "a man who is not satisfied with one woman and seeks out other women is on the path to decline" In Tibetan Buddhism， namely Tibetan Vajina Buddhism， it is not uncommon to take a consort in addition to a spouse， though it is namely for certain spiritual practices that the spouse may not be able/ready to participate in—or if the husband/wife are at different levels on their spiritual path[citation needed] A consort is appropriate in such Within this context， either the husband or wife， occasionally both， might take a spiritual This is known as Consort Practice， and there are specific teachings and meditations that go along with Consort Practice is often very private， however， and not openly discussed outside of followers of Tibetan Vajrayana—which tends to be a very private form of Buddhism in general – hence it is not very well Husbands and wives also engage in Consort Practice together， The 2008 BBC documentary series "A Year in Tibet"， however， recorded three distinct cases of polyandry in and around the city of Gyantse alone (the pregnant farmer's wife in episode 1， "The Visit"; Yangdron in episode 2， "Three Husbands and a Wedding"; and the young monk， Tsephun's， mother in episode 5， "A Tale of Three Monks") In "Three Husbands and a Wedding"， a 17-year-old girl is also shown being forced into a marriage that would have been polyandrous， except that the younger， 12-year-old， brother had to attend school on the wedding day (his parents hint that he will marry his older brother's new wife at a later date) The programs include statements from the women involved that indicate they did not enter the polyandrous marriages willingly， and commentary that indicates young women in Tibet are routinely forced by their families into polyandrous marriages with two or more Polyandry (especially fraternal polyandry) is also common among Buddhists in Bhutan， Ladakh， and other parts of the Indian HinduismBoth polygyny and polyandry were practiced in many sections of Hindu society in ancient Concerning polyandry， in the ancient Hindu epic， Mahabharata， Draupadi marries the five Pandava Regarding polygyny， in Ramayana， father of Ram， king Dasharath has three wives， but Ram has pledged himself just one The god-figure Lord Krishna， the 9th incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu had 16，108 wives with all of whom he had regular sexual relationship and fathered ten sons in each of Besides this he also had extra marrital affairs with many other women， who all were impregnated by Historically， kings routinely took concubines (such as the Vijaynagara emperor， Krishnadevaraya) In the post-Vedic periods， polygamy declined in Hinduism， and is now considered immoral [4]， although it is thought that some sections of Hindu society still practice polyandry， along with areas of Tibet， Nepal， and C After independence from the British， religions in which polygamy was still practiced were allowed to Under the Hindu Marriage Act， polygamy is considered illegal for Hindus， Jains， Buddhists， and Sikhs [5] However， Muslim men in India are allowed to have multiple Marriage laws in India are dependent upon the religion of the subject in [6]Judaism Biblical practiceThe Hebrew scriptures document approximately forty Notable examples include Abraham， who bore for himself a child through his wife's maidservant;[7] Jacob， who had fallen in love with Rachel， but was tricked into marrying her sister， Leah;[8] David， who inherited his wives from Saul;[9] and perhaps most famously， Solomon， who was led astray by his [10]In general， however， polygamy was never considered the ideal state，[11] with multiple marriage a realistic alternative in the case of famine， widowhood， or female [12] One source of polygamy was the practice of levirate marriage， wherein a man was required to marry and support his deceased brother's widow， as mandated by Deuteronomy 25:5–The Torah， Judaism's central text， includes a few specific regulations on the practice of polygamy， such as Exodus 21:10， which states that multiple marriages are not to diminish the status of the first wife (specifically， her right to food， clothing and conjugal relations) Deuteronomy 21:15–17， states that a man must award the inheritance due to a first-born son to the son who was actually born first， even if he hates that son's mother and likes another wife more;[13] and Deuteronomy 17:17 states that the king shall not have too many [14] The king's behavior is condemned by Prophet Samuel in 1Samuel Exodus 21:10 also speaks of Jewish Israeli lexicographer Vadim Cherny argues that the Torah carefully distinguishes concubines and "sub-standard" wives with prefix "to"， "took to "[15]The monogamy of the Roman Empire was the cause of two explanatory notes in the writings of Josephus describing how the polygamous marriages of Herod were permitted under Jewish [16]Modern practiceIn the modern day， Rabbinic Judaism has essentially outlawed Ashkenazi Jews have followed Rabbenu Gershom's ban since the 11th [17] Some Sephardi and Mizrahi Jews (particularly those from Yemen and Iran) discontinued polygamy much more recently， as they emigrated to countries where it was The State of Israel has made polygamy illegal，[18][19] but in practice the law is not enforced， primarily so as not to interfere with Bedouin culture， where polygamy is Provisions were instituted to allow for existing polygamous families immigrating from countries where the practice was Among Karaite Jews， who do not adhere to Rabbinic interpretations of the Torah， polygamy is almost non-existent Like other Jews， Karaites interpret Leviticus 18:18 to mean that a man can only take a second wife if his first wife gives her consent (Keter Torah on Leviticus， 96–97) and Karaites interpret Exodus 21:10 to mean that a man can only take a second wife if he is capable of maintaining the same level of marital duties due to his first wife; the marital duties are 1) food， 2) clothing， and 3) sexual Because of these two biblical limitations and because nearly all countries outlaw it， polygamy is considered highly impractical， and there are only a few known cases of it among Karaite Jews ChristianitySaint Augustine saw a conflict with Old Testament He writes in The Good of Marriage (chapter 15) that， although it "was lawful among the ancient fathers: whether it be lawful now also， I would not hastily For there is not now necessity of begetting children， as there then was， when， even when wives bear children， it was allowed， in order to a more numerous posterity， to marry other wives in addition， which now is certainly not " He refrained from judging the patriarchs， but did not deduce from their practice the ongoing acceptability of In chapter 7， he wrote， "Now indeed in our time， and in keeping with Roman custom， it is no longer allowed to take another wife， so as to have more than one wife " [emphasis added]The New Testament authors seem to prefer monogamy from church Paul writes in 1Timothy 3:2， " A bishop then must be blameless， the husband of one wife， vigilant， sober， of good behaviour， given to hospitality， apt to teach;" Something similar is repeated in the first chapter of the Epistle of TMonogamy also seems to be preferred for all Christians， and not just leadership， by the author of 1 Corinthians where it is stated in chapter 7， verse 2， "Nevertheless， to avoid fornication， let every man have his own wife， and let every woman have her own " Additionally， many readers find Matthew 19:9 to be nonsensical if not declaring an equivalency between polygamy and adultery: "And I say to you， whoever divorces his wife， except for sexual immorality， and marries another， commits adultery; and whoever marries her who is divorced commits "The Roman Catholic Church has subsequently taught that"polygamy is not in accord with the moral [Conjugal] communion is radically contradicted by polygamy; this， in fact， directly negates the plan of God which was revealed from the beginning， because it is contrary to the equal personal dignity of men and women who in matrimony give themselves with a love that is total and therefore unique and "[20]This is also the normal position among Protestant Churches， and it can therefore be said that the mainstream Christian position is to reject polygamy in principle[citation needed]Periodically， Christian reform movements that have aimed at rebuilding Christian doctrine based on the Bible alone (sola scriptura) have at least temporarily accepted polygamy as a Biblical For example， during the Protestant Reformation， in a document referred to simply as "Der Beichtrat" (or "The Confessional Advice" )，[21] Martin Luther granted the Landgrave Philip of Hesse， who， for many years， had been living "constantly in a state of adultery and fornication，"[22] a dispensation to take a second The double marriage was to be done in secret however， to avoid public [23] Some fifteen years earlier， in a letter to the Saxon Chancellor Gregor Brück， Luther stated that he could not "forbid a person to marry several wives， for it does not contradict S" ("Ego sane fateor， me non posse prohibere， si quis plures velit uxores ducere， nec repugnat sacris ")[24]"On February 14， 1650， the parliament at Nürnberg decreed that， because so many men were killed during the Thirty Years’ War， the churches for the following ten years could not admit any man under the age of 60 into a Priests and ministers not bound by any monastery were allowed to Lastly， the decree stated that every man was allowed to marry up to ten The men were admonished to behave honorably， provide for their wives properly， and prevent animosity among "[25][26][27][28][29]The modern trend towards frequent divorce and remarriage is sometimes referred to by conservative Christians as 'serial polygamy'[citation needed] In contrast， sociologists and anthropologists refer to this as 'serial monogamy'， since it is a series of monogamous ( not polygamous) [30] The first term highlights the multiplicity of marriages throughout the life-cycle， the second the non-simultaneous nature of these In Sub-Saharan Africa， there has often been a tension between the Christian churches' insistence on monogamy and traditional In some instances in recent times there have been moves for accommodation; in others churches have resisted such moves African Independent Churches have sometimes referred to those parts of the Old Testament which describe polygamy in defending the MormonismMain article: Polygamy and the Latter Day Saint movementSee also: Polygamy in the United States and List of Latter Day Saint practitioners of plural marriageThe history of Mormon polygamy (more accurately， polygyny) begins with belief that Mormonism founder Joseph Smith received a revelation from God on July 17， 1831 that some Mormon men would be allowed to practice "plural marriage" This was later set down in the Doctrine and Covenants by the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church)[31] Despite Smith's revelation， the 1835 edition of the 101st Section of the Doctrine and Covenants， written before the doctrine of plural marriage began to be practiced， publicly condemned This scripture was used by John Taylor in 1850 to quash Mormon polygamy rumors in Liverpool， E[32] Polygamy was illegal in the state of Illinois[33] during the 1839–44 Nauvoo era when several top Mormon leaders including Smith， Brigham Young and Heber C Kimball took plural Mormon elders who publicly taught that all men were commanded to enter plural marriage were subject to harsh [34] On June 7， 1844 the Nauvoo Expositor criticized Smith for plural The Nauvoo city council declared the Nauvoo Expositor press a nuisance and ordered Smith， as Nauvoo's mayor， to order the city marshall to destroy the paper and its This controversial decision led to Smith going to Carthage Jail where he was killed by a mob on June 27， The main body of Mormons left Nauvoo and followed Brigham Young to Utah where the practice of plural marriage [35]In 1852 Apostle Orson Pratt publicly acknowledged the practice of plural marriage through a sermon he Additional sermons by top Mormon leaders on the virtues of polygamy [36] Controversy followed when writers began to publish works condemning The key plank of the Republican Party's 1856 platform was "to prohibit in the territories those twin relics of barbarism， polygamy and slavery"[37] In 1862， Congress issued the Morrill Anti-Bigamy Act which clarified that the practice of polygamy was illegal in all US The LDS Church believed that their religiously-based practice of plural marriage was protected by the United States Constitution，[38] however， the unanimous 1878 Supreme Court decision Reynolds United States declared that polygamy was not protected by the Constitution， based on the longstanding legal principle that "laws are made for the government of actions， and while they cannot interfere with mere religious belief and opinions， they may with "[39]
